Ap World History Chapter 18 Reading Guide the Rise of Russia Answers
Russia in the 18th century is dominated past two greats, both of whom lived in the 18th century: firstly Peter who created a naval power, modernised the country in the European manner and established an empire with a new capital looking west, and secondly Catherine who connected Peter's reforms and widened the empire's borders at the expense of Poland and the Ottoman Empire. Uniquely in Russian history, for a large function of the 17th century the country was ruled by female person leaders.
Beginnings of the Great Northern War
Tsar Peter the Smashing was not content with the access to the Blackness Sea he had won with the capture of Azov from the Ottoman Empire, he also wanted access to the Baltic Bounding main, which was blocked by the Swedish provinces of Karelia, Ingermanland (Ingria), Estland (Estonia) and Livland (Livonia/Latvia). Peter entered into an alliance with Denmark –Kingdom of norway and Saxony and in 1700 invaded Sweden, laying siege to Narva. However, the Swedish proved too potent and Russia was defeated at the Battle of Narva in 1700. Sweden then turned its attention to Poland, whose male monarch at the time was likewise elector of Saxony. Peter the Great used this opportunity to attack Ingria once more than in 1703 with greater success. The Russians recaptured the Oreshek Fortress in 1702, the Swedish fortress of Nyenschantz, which guarded the mouth of the River Neva, in 1703 and Narva in 1704. King Charles XII of Sweden did accept more success in Poland where he managed to have his candidate elected male monarch in 1704.
Battle of Lesnaya
In 1707 Rex Charles XII of Sweden invaded Russia from Sweden hoping to capture Moscow. However, the harsh winter and Peter's apparatus of the scorch earth tactics put an end to this program and the regular army headed to Ukraine to recover. This programme was hampered in September 1708 when the Russians captured Swedish supplies and reinforcements at the Battle of Lesnaya in modern-day Belarus. In October 1708 Hetman Ivan Mazepa requested more troops from Russian federation to defend his Hetmanate, and when Peter the Corking refused, Mazepa and a group of loyal men rebelled and switched sides to the Swedish, bellyaching by what he saw as a snub past Russian federation afterwards the Cossacks had fought in Peter'due south wars in the Baltic.
Boxing of Poltava
In 1709 the Swedish and Russian armies met in boxing in Poltava in modern-twenty-four hours Ukraine were Russia won a decisive boxing. Male monarch Charles and his ally Hetman Mazepa simply merely managed to escape the battlefield to Turkey. The Battle of Poltava turned the tide of the war to the benefit of Russian federation. In June 1710 the siege of Vyborg ended with the Swedish give up and in 1710 the Swedish provinces of Estland and Livland surrendered.Less success was had during the subsequent River Pruth Campaign against the Ottoman Empire which was fought in Moldova. In 1711 the Russian army was surrounded by the Ottomans and Peter had no option just to sue for peace. The resulting Treaty of the Pruth forced Russia to give up Azov and demolish other fortresses in the surrounding area.
Window to Europe
Back in 1703,Peter ordered the construction of a new fortress on an island on the oral fissure of the River Neva, shut to the site of the old Swedish fortress of Nyenschantz. The fortress was named the Peter and Paul Fortress and the city of St Petersburg was thereby founded while the Great Northern State of war was still raging in the surrounding expanse. Tens of thousands of peasants were conscripted to build the new city, which included the draining of swamps. The difficult work and unforgiving climate claimed the lives of many. To speed up the construction procedure, Peter banned all other stone construction work in the empire. In 1712 the new city was decreed to be the capital of Russia and Peter ordered that noble families move in that location and build palaces on the embankments. Due to its location with easy admission to Europe, the foundation of St Petersburg is frequently described as Peter opening (or even chirapsia through) a window to Europe.
Tsar-Reformer
Peter the Great has gone down in history as a tsar-reformer who modernised and westernised Russia. His first reforms were connected with war machine matters; overhauling the organization of recruitment and of course creating a Russian fleet. This, in plough, led to industrial reforms to supply the regular army and navy, education reforms to teach Russians the required skills of mathematics, science and navigation and wide-scale structure projects, including the offset, unsuccessful, attempt to build a canal between the Volga and the Don.
Administrative Reforms
Peter likewise wished to meliorate the system of country administration. In 1708 an edict was passed which divided the state into eight governorates: Moscow, Ingermanland with information technology middle in Shlisselburg (later renamed the St Petersburg Governorate), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian with its middle in Tobolsk. Each governorate had its own governor and was further divided into districts. In after years more than governorates were created.
In 1722 in an attempt to suspension the heredity system of the boyar nobility Peter introduced the Table of Ranks which created three types of service (armed services, civil and court) each divided into 14 ranks. Depending on a person's service he could move up the ranks, regardless of his nascence (although this arrangement did not apply to serfs).Dorsum in 1711 Peter permanently established a authorities body known equally the Senate to rule the country while the tsar was on campaign. In 1721 the Boyar Duma was officially disbanded and its functions were transferred to the Senate. The former authorities department known as Prikazi were also replaced from 1717 onwards with organs known as collegia, afterwards renamed ministries in the 19th century.
Religious Reforms
The running of the Orthodox Church even was fifty-fifty included within the remit of Peter's Reforms. In 1700 Patriarch Adrian died. Peter had had a hard relationship with Adrian who often criticised the tsar's plans for modernisation, particularly Peter'due south decision to divorce his wife in 1698 and his stance on shaving beards off – which went against Orthodox pedagogy. Therefore Peter was in no hurry to engage a successor to Adrian and the position remained vacant. Peter instead established in 1721 a council known as the Holy Synod which would perform the functions of the patriarch. He also put restrictions on young men joining monasteries and thereby escaping their military duties. Peter'south stance in relation to the church even led to some fanatics believing him to be the Anti-Christ, this view was especially shared by the One-time Believers.
Tsarevich Aleksey
Peter had never enjoyed a skilful human relationship with his son from his start marriage Aleksey. From childhood, Aleksey was brought up past his mother who had a dandy deal of disdain for her married man. The subsequent divorce of his parents and his mother's removal to a convent in Suzdal made matters worse. Upon his father's orders, Aleksey had to serve in the army and he was married off to a German helpmate whom he did not similar. The unhappy marriage did, however, produce two children. Aleksey did non share his begetter's views for modernising Russia and adopting Russian federation traditions, which fabricated him a potential ally to those who shared his views. Aleksey made several threats to get a monk in lodge to escape his overbearing father. In 1716 Peter ordered his son to bring together him with the army, instead, Aleksey fled the state to Republic of austria. The scandal proved to be the final straw and once Aleksey was tricked into returning to Russia he was put on trial, tortured and eventually died in prison.
Empire
In 1721 the Treaty ofNystad was signed between Russia and Sweden which brought the Great Northern War to an end. Russian federation was the main benefactor nether the agreement as Sweden formally recognised Russia'south claim to the whole of Ingria, Republic of estonia and Livonia, plus Priozersk and Vyborg. Post-obit the treaty and the incorporation of the new territories, Peter proclaimed the beginning of the Russian Empire and he adopted the title of emperor rather than tsar, although the discussion 'tsar' is still commonly used to refer to the ruler of the Russian Empire.
Russo-Farsi State of war
In 1722 Peter launched a naval campaign confronting Persia with the support of beau Orthodox leaders of Georgia and Armenia. The newly established Caspian Flotilla from Astrakhan was joined past the Russian Army and Cossacks along with Georgian and Armenian support and were able to capture Persian territory in the Caucasus, including Derbent and Baku, from the Persians who were forced to sue for peace and recognise Russia's gains in the Caucasus in 1723 when the Ottomans invaded Persia.
Expiry of Peter the Nifty
Peter suffered bouts of ill health throughout his life and in the winter of 1725 he in one case once more brutal ill with bladder problems. He died in February 1725 while allegedly trying to write a note on a bit of paper, what he managed to consummate was "Leave all to". The corking reformer and first emperor was dead, simply he left behind an empire facing Europe from its new capital of St Petersburg; the one-time ways of Muscovite Russia were a thing of the past.
Reign of Catherine I
Back in 1704 while on campaign in Livonia Peter had met a beautiful peasant chosen Marta Skavronskaya. In 1707 Peter and Marta were secretly married with Marta adopting Orthodoxy and the name Yekaterina Alekseevna. Yekaterina had a soothing influence on Peter and bore him several children although just two daughters survived into adulthood: Anna and Yelizaveta. An official wedlock anniversary took place in 1712 in St Petersburg'due south St Isaac's Cathedral and in 1721 Peter named her empress consort of Russia. She is more often than not known in English equally Catherine I.
After Peter'southward death Catherine was named the new empress, largely thank you to the manoeuvrings of Peter the Bang-up's closest friend and advisor - Prince Aleksandr Menshikov who sought to rule Russia in her name equally the head of the newly created Supreme Privy Quango. Menshikov'south schemes went to plan and he retained his important position throughout Catherine's reign which allowed him to proceed his decadent ways. I personal policy of Catherine though was the reducing of war machine spending which in turn brought down taxes which earned the outset empress popularity. Catherine is also remembered for the Catherine Palace which she had synthetic on the outskirts of St Petersburg in Tsarskoe Selo.
Reign of Peter II
After Catherine I's death in 1727, the throne passed to the only male-line grandson of Peter the Keen - Pyotr Alekseevich who became Emperor Peter Ii. Menshikov hoped to go along his influence past marrying his daughter Maria to the new emperor. Nevertheless when Menshikov fell ill Peter and his advisors seized their moment and stripped Menshikov his rank and had him exiled to Siberia. Peter II moved the capital dorsum to Moscow subsequently his coronation in the city in 1728. In 1730 on the day he was supposed to marry Yekaterina Dolgorukova - an attempt past the Dolgorukovs to secure their own position in court - Peter II died anile just 14.
Empress Anna
After Peter Two, the Supreme Privy Council hoped to pull off a coup by offer Peter the Cracking's half-niece Anna the crown. Anna was the girl of Tsar Ivan V and a widow of the duke of Courland where she was ruling. Anna accepted the offer and fifty-fifty signed a list of conditions limiting her powers in favour of the Privy Council. The Privy Council, however, was mistaken in their belief that Anna would feel indebted to them for offer her the throne and upon condign empress she proceeded to disband the quango and ignore the atmospheric condition she had agreed to, thereby confirming the autocratic rule. Anna likewise returned the capital back to St Petersburg.
Anna'south reign is remembered rather unfavourably and for the influence of ethnic Germans at the purple court every bit Anna brought with her from the Duchy of Courland (now in modern-day Latvia) several ethnic German language advisors including Ernst Johann Biron who was possibly her lover. Biron became the most powerful man in the state. Nether Biron and Anna, a underground constabulary service was established which resulted in over 1000 people being executed and tens of thousands of people being exiled to Siberia, while others were field of study to brutal and degrading punishments. In addition, Anna seemed to enjoy humiliating her subjects, including the disabled and high-ranking Russian nobility. On a plus note Anna was a great supporter of art and civilization and connected to fund the Academy of Sciences.
State of war of Smoothen Succession
Russian federation was drawn into the War of Polish Succession in 1733 supporting the claim of Elector Friedrich August II of Saxony, the eventual victor in the war becoming King Baronial III of Poland. For its support King Baronial 3 allowed Anna to proper name Biron the new duke of Courland in 1737 post-obit the extinction of the ruling firm of Kettler.
Russo-Turkish State of war
In 1735, in response to Crimean raids on Ukraine, Russian federation declared war on the Ottoman Empire, the suzerain of the Crimean Khanate. Beforehand Russian federation gave dorsum the Caucasian possessions it had won from Persia in order to keep Persia from allying with the Ottoman Empire. Russia hoped to win back Azov and increase its territory providing access to the Black Body of water. Russia initially saw success and occupied the Crimean majuscule of Bakhchisarai but was afterward forced to retreat dorsum to Ukraine due to a lack of supplies. The Russians were later though able to capture Azov in 1736. Russia's ally of Republic of austria was forced to sue for peace after losing the Balkans to the Ottomans and in October 1739 signed a treaty with the Turks who recognised Russia'south possession of Azov, although Crimea and Moldova remained under Ottoman command. Both the Polish and Ottoman wars proved immensely costly for Russian federation.
An Infant Emperor
Empress Anna died in 1740. Previous to this, in an attempt to secure the throne for the descendants of her father Ivan V, rather than those of Peter the Great, Anna named her grand-nephew Ivan her heir. Ivan was the son of Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick and Princess Elisabeth of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (the daughter of Anna's sis Grand Duchess Yekaterina Ivanovna), who converted to Orthodoxy in 1733 and took the proper noun Grand Duchess Anna Leopoldovna of Russia. He was merely a few months former when he was named Emperor Ivan 6 of Russia. Originally Biron was named his regent only in merely over a calendar week Biron was ousted and Ivan'due south mother Anna Leopoldovna became regent and ruled along with the vice-chancellor Andrey Osterman.
Coup of Grand Duchess Yelizaveta Petrovna
In December 1741 the oldest surviving girl of Peter the Great, Grand Duchess Yelizaveta Petrovna, saw her gamble to have the throne of her father after having been gathering back up for her cause since the reign of her cousin Anna. Yelizaveta enjoyed special popularity amongst the Preobrazhensky Regiment whose support would evidence vital. Yelizaveta led the regiment to the Wintertime Palace where the infant Ivan Six was arrested along with his parents. Without whatsoever bloodshed Yelizaveta took the throne and was crowned empress in Moscow the following yr, ordinarily known in English as Empress Elizabeth.
Reign of Elizabeth
Empress Elizabeth had a reputation of being vain and jealous and is remembered for her love of high-club and balls, where she oftentimes wore male clothing, but she too had the sense to put able advisors in place to help her with ruling the state. Upon coming to power Elizabeth best-selling the end of the influence of ethnic Germans and installed ethnic Russians of the Orthodox faith in positions of ability and reinstated the Senate.
Seven Years War
In 1757 Russia entered the Seven Years War on the side of French republic and Austria against Prussia. The Russian army marched on Königsberg and inflicted a crushing defeat on King Frederick the Great of Prussia's troops at the boxing of Kunersdorf in 1759.
Elizabethan Bizarre
Elizabeth was a committed supporter of the arts, especially of the theatre and music. She as well had a love for architecture and deputed the building of many new churches. One of her favourite architects was the Italian Bartolomeo Rastrelli who was responsible for the construction of St Petersburg'due south Smolny Convent and the renovation of the Winter Palace in St Petersburg and the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo. The mode of compages popular during Elizabeth's reign has since become known as Elizabethan baroque. Elizabeth is also remembered for promising non to apply the expiry penalty during her reign and for keeping her word, although torture and other savage forms of penalty were notwithstanding used.
Elizabeth's Heir
Although there are reasons to believe Elizabeth married a Cossack past the name of Aleksey Razumovsky, who was famed for his beautiful singing voice, and possibly even had a child with him, Elizabeth never officially married and left no legitimate heirs. Fearing a plot to return Ivan Half dozen to the throne, who was notwithstanding imprisoned in Schlisselburg, Elizabeth took steps to resolve the matter of her succession by bringing her nephew Duke Charles Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp to Russia in 1742. She also found a wife for him in the form of Princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst. Peter converted to Orthodoxy (in an official sense at least) and took the name Pyotr Fyodorovich, while Sophia took the name Yekaterina Alekseevna.
Reign of Peter Three
Elizabeth died in 1761 (1762 in the new way of dates) and was succeeded past her designated heir - her German-born nephew, who became Emperor Peter 3. From the very outset, Peter was unpopular with almost everybody due to his character, frequently being described as a Russophobe, an idiot and a boozer. He was especially unpopular with his educated and Russophile wife Catherine, who was forced to put up with his erratic and childish behaviour. Peter's domestic reforms were by the standards of the time autonomous and progressive which in plough led to further unpopularity among the ruling elite. His foreign policies proved fifty-fifty more divisive as immediately in his reign in Jan 1762 Peter decided to make peace with his hero Frederick the Smashing of Prussia as Russian troops were approaching Berlin and ultimate victory.
Overthrow of Peter III
From the very beginning, the days of Peter's reign were numbered. The inevitable plot to overthrow him came in July 1762 and was led by Aleksey Orlov of the Purple Guards and who was also the lover of Peter's wife Catherine. Catherine played a part in the plot fearing that unless she acted she would virtually probable be sent to a convent by her hubby or worse. The coup was successful and Peter was forced to forsake and was imprisoned in the palace at Ropsha, before beingness murdered a few days later. In his place, Catherine, despite non having a drop of Romanov or even Russian claret, was named empress.
Catherine the Neat
Catherine II has gone down in history every bit Catherine the Great and as the most enlightened of rulers of Russia, whose reign is seen equally a golden age equally the empire grew in size, population and influence. As well as existence a great supporter of the arts, sciences and educational activity, Catherine was also a brilliant administrator. In 1776administrative-territorial reforms begun which saw the land divided into governorates and vice-royalties. Many settlements were also awarded urban center status and granted coats of arms and regulated city plans were approved. Some other reason which led to Catherine beingness known as the Great is that her reign saw massive territorial expansion. Catherine also has a skill for selecting talented men to help her in ruling the country, several of them also became her lovers, most famously Grigory Potyomkin whom she may take even secretly married. Much is made of Catherine's lovers, just in reality, it was non unusual for monarchs to take a cord of lovers, what is different is that usually, the monarchs were male. More of the deprived stories nearly Catherine'due south sexual appetite were fabricated by here enemies, including by her son who never forgave her for her function in the murder of her husband, his father.
However, Catherine can only really exist described as an enlightened despot as her liberal ideas were not e'er put into practice. This is especially clear with the status of the serfs. Although the idea of abolishing serfdom was explored during Catherine's reign, nothing came of it as the prospect of liberating the uneducated serfs and removing the free labour of the landed gentry proved also big an issue to handle.
Catherine was also ruthless in terms of her competition. In 1764 a plot to free Ivan VI from his prison in Schlisselburg was foiled which resulted in the expiry of the 23-twelvemonth old onetime emperor, who had spent nearly of his life locked abroad.Later in her reign, Catherine also had a woman who was claiming to be the daughter of Empress Elizabeth brought to Russia and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress where she is said to take drowned in 1775 (although other theories say that she was really immune to live out the remainder of her life in hugger-mugger at a convent). The full facts of this story remain unknown and this mysterious adult female has gone down in history as Princess Tarakanova, after the Russian word for cockroach.
Partition of Poland
Nether Catherine'southward reign, Russia extended her borders to the west at the cost of Poland where Catherine was successful in having her quondam lover Stanisław Poniatowski elected king in 1764. Poland was afterwards ruled by the Russian ambassador which led to protests and so the First, Second and Third Partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795 respectively. As a outcome of the partitions, Poland lost its independence and Russian gained the territory consisting of modern-day Republic of belarus, the Baltic States and Western Ukraine with the exception of Galicia. This expansion meant that the Russian Empire gained large populations of Poles, Ukrainians, Lithuanians and Jews, in respect of whom a police was enacted in 1792 which only permitted Jews to live in the western part of the empire which became known as the Pale of Settlement.
Russo-Turkish Wars
In 1768 the Russo-Turkish State of war broke out and Russian federation'south success in the war, specially the decisive Russian victories at the Boxing of Kagul in 1770 and the Battle of Chesma in 1771, culminated in a peace treaty in 1774 which was beneficial for Russian federation and saw Russia increasing its influence over S Ukraine and Crimea. In 1783 Catherine went a step further and annexed the Crimean Khanate which somewhen sparked another state of war with the Ottoman Empire in 1787. The second Russo-Turkish war during Catherine's reign was equally successful for Russia and remembered for the successful siege of Ochakov in 1788 and the capture of the Izmail Fortress by famous Russian commander Aleksandr Suvorov in 1790. Peace was reached in 1792 which saw the Ottoman Empire recognising Russia'due south incorporation of South Ukraine and Crimea. Still, Catherine's dream of liberating Constantinople from the Turks was never realised.
Pugachev Rebellion
The biggest threat to Catherine's reign came in the form of a disgruntled Cossack named Yemelian Pugachev. In 1770, afterward beingness refused permission for dwelling house leave from the army, Pugachev fled to bring together a grouping of contained Cossacks. He was arrested several times but e'er managed to escape and became a fugitive amidst the Yaik Cossacks and was sheltered past Sometime Believers. Pugachev was able to unite a large group of Cossacks, peasants, Onetime Believers, Bashkirs, Tatars and Kalmyks, who were all dissatisfied with Russian rule. By challenge to be Peter III who had somehow survived the coup of his wife, Pugachev became the leader which turned widespread dissatisfaction into a full-calibration insurgence in 1773.
The insurgence was hugely successful and whole sways of Russia's lower Volga region and parts of Western Siberian, including big cities such as Penza, Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Orenburg, Ufa and Yekaterinburg, supported Pugachev, who in plow set up his own alternative form of regime. The country response to the threat was so harsh and cruel that it proved counter affected and acquired more people to turn to Pugachev who promised liberty for serfs and minorities.
In July 1774 Pugachev achieved his greatest victory when his troops captured the major city of Kazan, with the exception of the kremlin. Nevertheless, upon taking Kazan, Pugachev had overstretched himself. Government troops were able to recapture the city and Pugachev was forced to flee. The tide had now turned in favour of the Russian regular army led by General Pyotr Panin and General Ivan Michelson. Pugachev and his men attempted to regroup in Tsaritsyn where the government troops inflicted a crushing defeat on them in August 1774. In September 1774 Pugachev's own men betrayed him and delivered him to the Russians. He was placed in a metal cage and delivered firstly to Simbirsk and then to Moscow where in Jan 1775 he was beheaded then fatigued and quartered on Bolotnaya Ploschad.
Death of Catherine
Catherine the Keen died in 1796 and was succeeded by her son Pavel – known as Paul in English language. Catherine and Paul both detested and distrusted each other, Catherine fifty-fifty alleged that Paul's father was not Peter Iii and information technology is thought she intended to name Paul'south eldest son Aleksandr Pavlovich (the future Alexander I) as her successor. The common dislike for ane some other is oftentimes explained by the fact that as a infant Paul was taken for his mother by Empress Elizabeth. One of Paul'south first acts was to destroy his female parent's testament and introduce a new police establishing the principle of primogeniture where an emperor is survived by his next male heir, and women can only be considered if there are no surviving male Romanov heirs. As an act of revenge, Paul had his father reburied in the Ss Peter and Paul Cathedral next to his mother and ordered that Count Aleksey Orlov (Peter III's likely murderer) carry the coffin.
Military Reforms of Paul
Although it was claimed that Paul was not the son of Peter Iii, the fact that he resembled him and shared his eccentricities and love for military pomp and anniversary suggests that the claim was false. In plough, he shared no characteristics or interests with his mother, practically opposing everything she supported. He apace brought an end to the Persian Campaigns supported by his female parent to extend the empire southwards, in club to concentrate more on Europe. Upon becoming emperor, Paul reorganised the ground forces along Prussian lines and introduced new uniforms which although may accept looked impressive were uncomfortable and impractical. Even the distinguished general Aleksandr Suvorov criticised the reforms which earned him dismissal from the regular army.
Italian and Swiss Campaigns
In the confront of the rise of the French Republic and anti-monarchy sentiment, Russia joined a coalition against France. In 1799, outraged at the French capture of Malta (Paul was obsessed with the Knights Hospitaller and was even made grandmaster in 1798), Russia alleged war and met the French in the Italian and Swiss campaigns of the French Revolutionary awards. For this Paul was forced to bring back Suvorov who continued his record of never losing a unmarried battle – an almost unique feat in history. The campaign famously included a Hannibal-like crossing of the Alps by Suvorov and his men to escape destruction past a much larger and stronger French force. Despite the heroic feats of Suvorov, overall the Italian and Swiss campaigns remained fruitless for Russia and the scene was gear up for a further confrontation betwixt Russian and France.
Source: https://rusmania.com/history-of-russia/18th-century
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